The whole is equal to the sum of its parts

Opera is comprised of music and text – the libretto. The composer chooses the subject for his work – a story or perhaps a play.  He may also accept an appropriate subject that some outside source has suggested.  In either case, the music is matched to the story. This includes time, place and historical period. Mascagni’s opera Cavalleria Rusticana for example, takes place in Sicily around the turn of the twentieth century. The society is agrarian. The story is rather simple. A young man from a village who was in love with a girl from the same village goes off to war.  When he returns he finds that his beloved has married someone else. He, in turn, enters in a liaison with another woman who becomes pregnant with his child though they are not married. The society shuns and ostracizes her. The young man however, maintains a secret and forbidden relationship with his former love. The jealous, rejected woman, informs the cuckolded husband.  During the festivities of the Easter holiday, the husband publically challenges the lover to a duel and kills him.  The themes in this drama are age-old and have been dealt with, by many. However, in Mascagni’s opera, the setting is specific.  It is Easter Sunday; the townspeople, are dressed in their finest clothing.  They have congregated in the village square to celebrate the holiday after having come out of the church service.  The society is Roman Catholic and is religious. The setting is specific and detailed. Mascagni’s music is intended to depict this atmosphere fully.  It is his vision, and only his. Yet I have seen a production of this classic where the action takes place in a stone quarry. Easter Sunday in a stone quarry? Religious Roman Catholics celebrating this sacred holiday in this way? Every reference in the opera negates this interpretation. But this is common practice in the opera houses of today. Many producers and stage managers disregard the specific instructions of the composer. They violate the very spirit of the work. The music may not be divested of the role for which the composer himself intended it; the music and text are inextricably combined. The example is intended to point out the ludicrous results of tampering with the original concept of the composer. It proposes to illustrate that indeed, the whole is equal to the sum of its parts.

Anatomy of an Aria

Arias are usually written for principal singers in an opera.  It is rare and infrequent that a minor character is assigned to sing an aria.  Such an occurrence presents itself in Act IV of Puccini’s La Bohème in the person of the philosopher, Colline.   He is one of four friends who share a garret in mid-nineteenth-century Paris and is the least prominent.  Except for Rodolfo, he is the only one to sing an aria, ‘Vecchia zimarra’ (Venerable coat) Vecchia zimarra.  It is brief and it is seemingly out of place in the closing moments of the opera. Like “Vissi d’arte” in Tosca, some might consider it superfluous, However, if Puccini included it in the work, he had his reasons. Consider the accompaniment.  It is slow and plodding; clearly, it is a dirge.  Mimi’s death is impending. Colline wishes to be part of the effort made by Mimi’s friends, to save her life. In the aria, Colline expresses his deepest feelings, not for the old dilapidated coat he purchased in the opening moments of Act, II but for Mimi. He addresses his remarks to an inanimate object but he is really talking to Mimi.  In psychological terminology, Colline is using displacement as a comfortable way for him to express his deep and close feelings for Mimi. Puccini describes Colline as distant and remote; he is incapable of expressing feelings in a direct way.  Note that in Act II, when Rodolfo magnanimously introduces Mimi to his comrades, Marcello responds warmly and heartily; Schaunard and Colline both greet Mimi in Latin – remote and uninviting. Schaunard uses one phrase, Colline, two. Colline is twice as removed as Schaunard. In Act IV, Colline addresses the warn-out coat in the warmest of terms.  One wonders how anyone can, realistically, become so attached to a second-hand item that was purchased just a few, short months before. Pay attention to the musical line. For the phrase ‘Io rest al pian’ (I remain here), the music ascends; for the phrase ‘tu ascendere il sacro monte’ (you ascend the holy mountain), the musical line descends (0:18 – 0:24). The holy mountain is a reference to heaven and ascending it means dying.  However, if the musical lines are reversed as they are in this part of the aria, it means that there is a wish to deny death. The musical theme recurs towards the end of the aria ‘ti dico [ascending] addio’ (I bid you farewell) [descending]. However, here the musical lines appropriately reflect the text. Note too, that the elegant pacing and tempo in the aria approximates or even mimics the frolicking melody in Act II when Colline chimes in Signorina Mimi (0:48 -0:55) to the gay atmosphere created by the introduction of Mimi to the group. In other words, the heretofore remote and emotionally isolated Colline becomes animated in  Mimi’s presence. For him, Mimi’s imminent death will be a terrible loss. This is Puccini’s exquisite way of handling Colline’s deep affection for Mimi. As expressed previously, it is the only way that the shy philosopher could comfortably express his deepest feelings. Is this not genius?

The Flower Song – Fateful or Faithful?

                            

An aria is the chosen vehicle of opera composers for presenting the singer’s vocal prowess to the audience.  Logic would suggest that the composer intentionally places it strategically in the opera, to call attention to an important event that significantly influences the outcome of the drama. Therefore, it is incumbent upon us to understand its meaning relative to its placement in the work. In his opera Carmen, Bizet wrote the beautiful Flower Song for Don Josè to sing in Act II.  Carmen accuses Josè of not loving her.  Josè, as a disciplined soldier, says that he must return to barracks at the sound of the ‘retreat’. Carmen makes him feel guilty for preferring duty to her. At this point, Josè pulls out a withered flower from his tunic and sings of how it lifted his spirits during his imprisonment for having allowed Carmen to escape. He avers his undying love for Carmen.  This is the famous Flower Song. From this point on, the relationship between Josè and Carmen deteriorates; it ends in Carmen’s death by José’s hand at the conclusion of the opera.  Why? What is the significance of the flower, and why does Josè sing the aria at all?  The flower’s importance has its origin in Act I.  Carmen has sung her famous Habanera; she then turns her attention to Don José – the only male who has not clamored for Carmen’s attention.  It is at this point in the score that Bizet introduces the Fate Theme for the first time https://youtu.be/SaypJ4kmYCE (24:08). It appears again as an introduction to the Flower Song in Act II (1:14:29).  Coincidence? Hardly! The appearance of the same theme in two or more places in the score connects them psychologically.   We must address this occurrence in order to understand its employment by the composer; it relates to the unfolding drama.  In Act I Carmen throws a flower at Don José. When he picks it up, she tells José that he can throw it away because it has already made its effect. When José produces the withered flower in Act II, he has, disregarded Carmen’s specific instruction to him in the previous Act and thereby, he violated an unspoken pact between them. According to Carmen love is freely given. José’s hanging on to the flower suggests possession or possessiveness. Carmen interprets this act as proof that José does not love her. Indeed, they are at opposite sides of the spectrum; they are simply unsuited for each other.  José of course, for reasons of his own, does not understand this.  The flower serves each protagonist’s personal needs and in opposite directions. For Carmen, it is an expression of temporal desire. “I am attracted to you. I want you now because Fate has so decreed.” For José, it is a matter of devotion, a sign of being faithful, of belonging. “Fate has determined that we be together.” Bizet’s use of the Fate Theme represents this dichotomy. The Flower Song is the pivot of the entire opera.  In the scene that follows, José seals his fate when he draws his sword on Zuniga, an officer; there is no way for him to recoup. He becomes an outlaw.

26 September 2017

Israel

Composer vs Performer

                                                

Opera Composers have a definite concept in mind when they map out their ideas for a new work. They have purpose, direction, and notion, about its execution.  By the time they have completed their creation, composers have pretty much worked out the fine details that will reflect their thoughts. They express their wishes as regards performance explicitly and specifically in written instructions - stage directions for example.  However, sometimes, the concept is in the very fabric of the work itself. The sensitive implementer – performer, conductor, or stage manager – of the work will look for the relevant identifying indices. The term ‘relevant’ is essential to interpreting the composer’s intention for it involves judgment.  A sound interpretation incorporates as much of the information that is available. Judgement, therefore, is a direct function of the interpreter’s ability to assess the evidence.  Invariably, differences of opinion occur.  The question then becomes which alternative expresses the composer’s concept best.  A good example of this argument is present in Act I of Puccini’s masterful La Bohème.

As they leave his apartment arm in arm, Mimi and Rodolfo sing ‘Amor, amor, amor’.  According to the score, both sing the following notes G, E, and C on the first ‘amor’ and the first syllable of the second ‘amor’. On the second syllable, Rodolfo sings an F and Mimi sings an A. On the first syllable of the final ‘amor’, Rodolfo sings an F and an E on the second syllable; Mimi sings in parallel, an A and a high C. [https://youtu.be/cSuL4u3bOpg  33:21 - 33:39]  In the recorded example, the tenor goes up to the high C. However, Puccini did not instruct him to do so.  Nor did he offer the opportunity as an alternative!  Simply stated, Puccini did not want the tenor to sing the high C. Puccini was a man of the theater so he was well aware of the audience’s thrill to hear the tenor’s high notes and of the latter’s tendency to show off his top.  Was this, then, an omission (deliberate or otherwise)? In order to resolve this issue, we must examine the score as written. We observe that when Rodolfo and Mimi sing in parallel, the combined notes are C – F – A – C; the intervals between notes are a fourth, a third, and a third.  The aural effect is the same as that of Puccini’s introduction of Rodolfo to the audience at the beginning of the opera (‘Nei cieli bigi’ etc. [https://youtu.be/cSuL4u3bOpg 1:53-1:55]) and again, during Rodolfo’s aria just before ‘In povertà mia lieta’ when he introduces himself to Mimi. (21:59 – 22:02).  Puccini carefully thought out the relationship between the three points in his drama. In the introductions, Rodolfo reveals himself, almost in confession. By dovetailing the melody at the end of the Act, Puccini indicates that there is an acceptance, a meeting of the minds if you will, between Rodolfo and Mimi. This interpretation takes into account enough of the clues given by Puccini himself to make the human story believable. The tenor’s high C is irrelevant to the flow of the drama. It is always preferable to follow the composer’s lead and judgment, over other considerations.

  

Creative Closure

                                                 Creative Closure

All human encounters are psycho-dynamically determined.  Opera composers can accomplish this by means of a musical theme that joins the protagonists in the drama. Puccini illustrates this experience beautifully as he conceives the relationship between Rodolfo and Mimi in Act I of La Bohème. [https://youtu.be/cSuL4u3bOpg]. The opening scene finds Marcello, a painter, and Rodolfo, a poet, in their cold garret apartment in Paris.  The bitter cold prevents Marcello from completing his painting, while Rodolfo complains about the pot-bellied stove that does not provide enough heat to warm the apartment. His opening phrase, ‘Nei cieli bigi […]’ (In the big skies […]), is comprised of the following notes. F, B-flat, D, F, F. [1] (1:53-1:55). In his aria ‘Che gelida manina’, (Your tiny hand is frozen […]) later on in the Act, when he is with Mimi, Rodolfo tells her about himself. The brief interlude between ‘E come vivo? Vivo!’ (How do I survive? I manage!) and ‘In povertà mia lieta’ (I am happy in my poverty) is made up of the same melody as above with different notes [E-flat, A-flat, C, and E-flat – in A-flat major] [2] (21:59 – 22:02).  Still later, at the conclusion of the Act, Rodolfo, and Mimi, having fallen in love, sing the beautiful duet ‘O soave fanciulla’ (Oh lovely maiden…). Puccini ends the duet by having Rodolfo and Mimi sing the notes G, E, and C in the key of C major, to the words ‘Amor! A_’ in unison. From the syllable _mor! Amor! Puccini has the singers sing as follows. Rodolfo sings an F and Mimi an A. On the syllable “A” that follows, Rodolfo repeats the F and Mimi repeats the A. On the syllable “mor!” Rodolfo sings an E while Mimi rises to a high C [3] (33:22 – 33:24__33:39). NOTE:  The discussion relates to the written score. The recorded selection above – with the tenor taking the high C - does not reflect Puccini’s instructions!  If we pay careful attention to the numbered time-listings we become aware that in all three the auditory effect is identical and that the intervals between the notes are a fourth, a third and a third.  Puccini’s purpose was intentional. He introduces us, the listening audience, to Rodolfo with the same melody that Rodolfo introduces himself to Mimi. If we listen closely to example [3], we realize Puccini’s intent namely, that by having the lovers sing alternating notes, thereby achieving the same note sequence, they express and cement their love for one another.  This most ingeniously creative measure achieves closure.

6 September 2017

Israel

 

One Phrase, Two Different Impressions

The tone and the inflection of what we express in words is an indicator of our inner soul; they reflect our feelings and intentions. They are signposts of who we are in any given situation. Poets, playwrights, and authors throughout history were aware of this human trait and employed it to describe and further their literary and social ideas. So have artists, sculptors, and choreographers employed this principle each in his own, unique manner, using the instruments of expression that applied to their specific discipline.  The operatic composer too is no stranger to this experience. He uses his musical palette, as is his wont, to describe ever so delicately, a change in mood or feeling in his characters sometimes using the same or similar words. A beautiful example of this sensitivity to detail appears in Act I of Puccini’s La Bohème. Rodolfo the poet is alone in the bachelor apartment that he shares with three friends; he must finish an article he promised to his publisher.  He is not able to concentrate; he is not in the mood. Suddenly, Mimi, the upstairs neighbor knocks on the door supposedly to ask that her extinguished candle be re-lit.  In the ensuing scene the two fall in love.  [https://youtu.be/cSuL4u3bOpg] Puccini delicately describes the changing mood in Mimi’s behavior based on a single phrase uttered by her during the exchange with Rodolfo. No sooner has Mimi exited the apartment with her newly lit candle, she quickly re-enters to the following phrase.’Oh! Sventata, sventata [….] Importuna la vicina’. (Oh! The candle has gone out [….] (18:36 – 18:47) and bothersome neighbor. (19:10 – 19:33).  Note the gay, light-hearted music that accompanies the statements.  Immediately following her aria Mi chiamano Mimi (They call me Mimi), she intends to make a hurried exit ‘Sono la sua vicina [….] d’ora a importunare’. (I am your neighbor [….] at this inopportune hour 29:22 – 29:34). In both instances, neighbor and inopportune are joined.  However, notice the difference in mood between the two. Coincidence?  Not a chance!  The Mimi that came into the apartment has undergone an emotional transformation. Upon her entrance, Mimi was an unknown.  Nevertheless, having revealed herself during her aria, Mimi felt exposed and not in a particularly good light.  Regardless of her soaring aspirations, in the end, Mimi’s flowers were artificial.  ‘Ma I fiori ch’io faccio, ahime, non hanno odore’. (But the flowers I make, alas, have no fragrance). Puccini accurately captured Mimi’s feelings in both instances. Only the sensitive artist can fathom the fragility of the human condition so precisely.  This what makes Puccini the individual so special and the opera composer as an artist, so unique.

Character Development in Opera

The key ingredient in defining the worth or value of an object is to assess its functionality over a relative period of time or usage. The period of assessment must be reasonable; longevity, therefore, is an accepted reference factor to evaluate the object of scrutiny. If this measure of quality applies to inanimate objects, it is even more relevant to human beings. For the opera composer, this feature is crucial to the molding of his characters so that they become believable persona in the drama that he has put to music. Human beings grow and mature along a continuum, usually a lifetime. Every aspect of their personality contributes to the compilation of the final evaluation. In opera, the entire spectrum of behavior, from the beginning to the end of the work, is weighed and accounted for. Opera is a dynamic medium of artistic expression; when people are involved, as they are in opera, the medium takes on psychodynamic implications. The motivation and actions of a Rigoletto, for example, must be understood on the merits of the entire spectrum of his inter-relation with other characters in the opera. There is no such designation as the real Rigoletto- the warm and loving father - unless verified over the long haul of the entire opera. Sadly, this is not the case, though it has been publically stated. A close inspection of the libretto will challenge the notion of the warm and loving father as the real Rigoletto. The reason for this anomaly is that the assessor only considered Rigoletto’s statement in Pari Siamo ‘Ma in altr’uomo qui mi cangio!’ (But, here I become another person!). But, when we reflect on the sum of Rigoletto’s relationships with the Duke, Monterone, the courtiers, Sparafucile, and even Gilda, the picture takes on an entirely different hue. It is the conglomerate impression left by these associations that will ultimately define the real Rigoletto, very much as the aggregation of pixels on a monitor. The greater the number of pixels, the clearer the picture. Believable character development, therefore, is dependent on the evaluation of the sum of the traits provided by the composer for each protagonist in his opera.

The Nature of Music

Of all the varied forms for describing the Human experience, music is probably the most profound. It is wondrously malleable, exquisitely pliable and can be finely tuned to achieve an accurate expression of feelings and states of mind. But its maximum effect can only be realized when it is placed in the hands of a sensitive master artisan. Music is a tool that must be manipulated carefully and with utmost spiritual dexterity. In the absence of this requirement, music becomes mundane and devoid of emotional impact. Change of mood, feeling and atmosphere can even be achieved by altering the tempo and or slightly modifying the musical line from minor to major; a semitone can make all the difference in creating atmosphere. This idea was discussed in my post ‘Retrospection’ and here takes on an added dimension. In Act I of Verdi’s Otello, [http://youtu.be/VVvr4tOyUTY] during the scene when Otello strips Cassio of his commission, the composer uses a theme at (18:32 – 1836) which is repeated four more times until Cassio’s demotion. The music (six notes) is dramatic and the atmosphere is fraught with tension; the difference between the last two notes is a half –minor – step. In Act I of Verdi’s earlier opera Un Ballo in Maschera, [http://youtu.be/RH8C51NOLFy] at (19:14 -1916), Verdi uses the same melody, but this time the difference between notes five and six is a full –major –note. In this scene, the king is planning to visit the fortune teller, Ulrica, as a lark together with members of his entourage. Listen to the different atmosphere from the one in Otello. Yes. The moments are but a flash; however, the distinction between the two examples is discernible. The subtle variances can only be accomplished by a master musician which Verdi most certainly was.

Composer and Painter in one Pod

Just as an author paints a landscape with words, so does the composer when he attaches music to a libretto. He draws the listener into a drama of his choosing by engaging our auditory sense. It sounds so obvious and yet we often forget that this phenomenon exists. Let’s see how this concept plays itself out in opera – Rigoletto for example. The aristocrat Monterone has cursed Rigoletto; the latter is mortified. In the following scene, Rigoletto is on his way home. He cannot shake the curse from his mind; he is pre-occupied by it. Sparafucile, a professional assassin, approaches Rigoletto and the scene becomes a duet. [https://youtu.be/A9CIr6vhsq0]. Two men are engaged in conversation. Are they standing or walking? At the same gait? Most people would say that Rigoletto and Sparafucile are stationary. But the second question is suspicious; why raise it at all? The lilting music that accompanies the scene makes the listener cautious as to the intent of the composer. [00:47 – 01:45]. This musical figure, which is used as an accompaniment, is prominent for nearly a full minute. It has four beats to a measure where the rest is equal to the sound oom and the note is equal to the sound pah. When the figure is played together, and in a continuum, the result is oom-pah, pah-oom, oom-pah-pah-oom, oom-pah-pah-oom etc. If we were to pace this out, we would realize that we are limping or, at best, shuffling along. Verdi is telling us that in addition to being a hunchback, Rigoletto also limps. That and more. The conversation between Rigoletto and Sparafucile takes place as both men are moving. The flowing quality of the melody itself, at the very least, suggests Sparafucile’s gait which, of course, is different than that of Rigoletto. It is a brilliant piece of writing that shows Verdi’s outstanding ability to describe human interaction with sensitive accuracy and, in a sense, painting a vivid picture in musical terms.

Association, Registration, Authentication

An opera composer writes music to a text that he has written or, as in most cases, was written for him by a librettist who he has commissioned. The finished product is an amalgam of word and melody that depicts a specifically defined expanse of time and place. Like the master tailor who sews a custom-made garment, the opera composer takes into account the minutest of details to ensure that the finished product is as individual as the customer who ordered the garment. The greater the attention to detail, the finer is the quality of the product. As the weave and texture of the fabric evoke to the tailor all sorts of associative ideas relevant to the possibilities of self- expression, so do the flavors and the scents of the settings in the story provide inspiration for musical creativity to the composer. Add to this the factor of human inter-relations and the difference between the tailor and the composer becomes exponentially apparent. Though music by its nature may be a free agent, once it has been joined to a specific mass, it becomes inextricably and irrevocably limited to and associated with that mass. Take, for example, Puccini’s opening to La Bohème. Originally the music was written by Puccini in his Capriccio Sinfonica, for his final exam at the Conservatory of Milano. But who remembers that? The association is with the opera. That and more. As the opening melody is associated Puccini’s opera, so is the story including the scenery, costumes, and venue; they are all part of Puccini’s vision of Paris, as he described it in his work. Changing any part of his concept is to taint the flavor of Puccini’s masterpiece. Puccini’s work as is has been registered in the annals of opera; one may not scavenge it for its individual components. To do so would be to divest it of the composer’s visualization. Staging Puccini’s work as he envisioned it, is to authenticate it. Check out my book in http//:amzn.to/20qeTNd Read more at my blog http//:bit.ly/2qiNXR8

Stage Instructions

Stage Instructions The composer’s stage instructions are important and crucial to opera performances. They are a window, as it were, to our understanding of the issues the composer presents in his work. To disregard them means that we are altering the work, sometimes in a drastic way. An example from Verdi’s Otello will serve to clarify this important concept. Act IV. Desdemona has gone to bed and anxiously awaits Otello’s entrance. She is full of foreboding and is uneasy. Otello enters. The music is eerie and the atmosphere is full of mystery and tension. In the scene that follows Otello accuses his wife of infidelity which she vehemently denies. Otello is beyond reason; he has resolved to murder Desdemona based on Iago’s cleverly orchestrated evidence. As Otello’s rage increases with Desdemona’s every hapless and frenzied attempt to deny the false accusations, the tempi of Verdi’s music increase and the orchestra’s volume rises as though a horse is galloping uncontrollably at breakneck speed. Finally, Otello murders Desdemona. Of course, the truth comes out in the end and Otello, full of remorse, stabs himself to death at the foot of the bed where his beloved wife’s inert body lay. https://youtu.be/Uyy2CuTQ_oE Verdi’s stage instruction is clear. Otello is to suffocate Desdemona to death. For whatever reason, best known to stage directors, some productions, have their Otellos stab, Desdemona. It is a small detail; after all, Desdemona dies anyhow. So why make an issue of this matter? But the difference between death by stabbing and by suffocation is tremendous. Consider the following. A person who uses an instrument to commit murder need only throw the instrument aside. By this simple act, he divests himself from any involvement with the deed – a kind of ablution. Suffocation is different; its effect is achieved only when the victim breathes his last and the hand that suffocates must apply pressure until the deed is completed. One cannot discard one’s limb. He virtually watches as the victim’s life ebbs away. Such murder is much more personal, more intimate; the emotional investment is far greater. Verdi was well aware of the difference; he was sensitive and understood the human condition. His instruction to the stage director was made intentionally. Such liberties as taken by stage directors do a terrible injustice to the composers’ deep understanding of and respect for the human spirit for they do not take into sufficient account the composer’s deep involvement and investment in his creation. Check out my book in http//:amzn.to/20qeTNd

Rigoletto Some Observations

Rigoletto – Some Observations Rigoletto is one of the most popular of Verdi’s operas. Its hero is viewed as being tragic. He is a single parent who struggles to raise his teenage daughter under daunting circumstances. Rigoletto is a concerned parent, perhaps even overprotective. He is a warm, loving father who would shelter his only child from all evil. What a pity that he is ugly and deformed and can obtain employment only as a court jester in the employ of a bon vivant Duke, who is wantonly depraved and egocentric, thinking only of himself and of his needs. So have we been taught to regard him; our heart goes out to him and the terrible tragedy that befalls him and his unfortunate daughter. Poor thing; she was betrayed by a knave of a Duke and committed suicide in order to spare his life. Several issues are raised by Verdi himself throughout the opera that call into question our initial impression. How would you feel if you ask someone: What is your name”? And he responded: “What does it matter”? Would you feel comfortable or feel put off by the response? Most of us would not feel warmth toward such a person. Yet this is the response Rigoletto gives Gilda in Scene 2 of Act I. And when Gilda asks her father to tell her about her mother, Rigoletto launches into a sentimental account of how his wife (Gilda’s mother) was kind to him and took care of him. [ https://youtu.be/F6DkgfMcXdw] (27:40 – 29:04) How is that for consideration? In Act III, after Rigoletto reveals the Duke’s duplicity to Gilda, Rigoletto instructs Gilda to return home, change into men’s clothing, and ride to Verona on horseback to await his arrival the next day. It is nearly midnight, in mid-sixteenth century Italy, and the distance from Mantua to Verona is twenty-nine kilometers. Gilda has not stepped out of her walled house/fortress for months and has no knowledge of her surroundings. Would you send your teen-aged daughter to get a container of milk at the local all-night supermarket under these circumstances - alone? One wonders about Rigoletto’s concern for the safety of his beloved daughter. More such observations will be made in the future.

Two Birds, One Stone

The complexity of the human condition is such that one experience may elicit a number of responses, perhaps even involving contradictions. A case in point appears in Gilda’s aria “Tutte le feste al tempio” (On festive [days] at the church) in Act II of Verdi’s opera Rigoletto. The Duke’s courtiers have abducted Gilda (end of Act I) and have brought her to the Duke’s bedchambers. After much pleading Rigoletto succeeds to enlist the courtiers’ sympathies; Gilda emerges from the Duke’s apartment and is reunited with Rigoletto. At this point in the story, Verdi introduces Gilda’s narrative. [https://youtu.be/3E6Bj78oaNI]. The aria is a synopsis of Gilda’s account of her experiences beginning with her initial contacts with the Duke through and including her abduction. In the portion of the aria (2:30 – 3:14), Gilda describes the abduction. However, by paying close attention to the pace and the tempo of the background, we may also be able to conjure up the vision of a marching band being led down Main Street by a young, proud, high-stepping majorette twirling her baton. If this sounds odd and discordant consider the situation. True. Gilda underwent a harrowing and frightful ordeal, but she had a positive experience as well. Gilda entered the Duke’s bedchamber a virgin and emerged a woman and proud as any of the change in status. She wasn’t raped; she was made love to by an expert. The entire experience was both frightful and prideful. Verdi’s music describes the total experience in his usually masterful way that attests to his deep understanding of the human soul and the composer’s sensitivity to people. This interpretation will also account for and explain Gilda’s comment “Ciel! Dammi corragio” (Heaven! give me courage.) that immediately precedes the aria. The courage is twofold – to tell of the abduction and of her first sexual experience.

Beware When Tampering with a Man’s Pride

People take their pride very seriously; it is probably the most sensitive component of a person’s being. So we must be consciously sensitive to the feelings of others or suffer the consequences of their response. These may sometimes be dire as in the case of the Rigoletto-Sparafucile duet in the second scene of Act I of Verdi’s opera Rigoletto. On his way home from the Duke’s palace where he had publically ridiculed a nobleman, Rigoletto, the court jester, is preoccupied with the curse hurled at him by the offended nobleman. Rigoletto is suddenly accosted by the assassin Sparafucile. An animated discussion between the two follows during which Sparafucile offers his services to Rigoletto should the need arise. Sparafucile prides himself as a thorough and proficient professional whose word is his bond. The impression he makes is considerable and believable. However, in Act III, Sparafucile reneges on his word and betrays Rigoletto’s trust when he accedes to his sister Maddalena’s entreaties to murder someone other than the Duke, the intended victim. The erstwhile trustworthy assassin betrays his employer. The question is, why? A response that he acquiesced to his sister’s pleas to spare the handsome man or that he would be presenting a corpse in any case and thus fulfill his end of the bargain, just doesn’t ring true. The impression of integrity and honor in Act I is too strong and defies credulity to Sparafucile’s betrayal. Also, Verdi’s marvelous music in Act III wonderfully describes his tremendous struggle to keep his word to Rigoletto. [https://youtu.be/kST-64cjdRY 0:53 – 4:35] Why then, did Sparafucile’s resolve fail him? The duet in Scene II provides the answer [https://youtu.be/A9CIr6vhsq0 3:25-4:08]. Pay attention to the exchange between Sparafucile and Rigoletto; hear the immense pride in the former’s declaration “Sparafucile mi nomino” (Sparafucile is my name). Rigoletto responds with “Straniero” (a foreigner). Sparafucile replies “Borgognione” (Burgundian). And here Verdi makes a subtle musical observation. He gives to Rigoletto’s rejoinder “E dove all’ occasione?” (And where [do I find you] should the need arise?), the very same melody that he used when Sparafucile declaimed his name! This is not coincidental. Rigoletto utters the same melody and thereby mimics/ mocks Sparafucile’s seeming self-importance. That and more. Strangers, particularly in 16th century Italy, were looked upon with suspicion and derision – even disdain. Rigoletto haughtily dismisses Sparafucile “Va, va “ (Begone).No one pays attention to this trivial observation yet it is the only viable and psychologically sound explanation to Sparafucile’s flagrant violation of his contract with Rigoletto.

The Importance of Location in Opera

The Importance of Location in Opera Maria Callas the great diva is reputed to have stated in one of her interviews that Puccini’s opera Tosca would not have suffered if the composer did not include the soprano aria “Vissi d’arte” (I lived for art). In her opinion the aria is superfluous. But, since Puccini chose to include this marvelous aria, we must conclude that he did so with intent; that it has significance and is an integral part of the story that Puccini wished to tell. In addition, Puccini’s decision to place it where he did in the plot, is relevant to our understanding Tosca’s character. It remains for us to reveal Puccini’s intent.The aria is sung by Tosca towards the latter part of Act II. Scarpia, Rome’s villainous Chief of Police had apprehended Tosca’s lover Cavaradossi for committing subversive activities against the government and has ordered the former’s torture. Tosca cannot bear to hear her lover’s anguished screams and is prepared to pay a price for Cavaradossi’s release. Scarpia scoffs at Tosca’s supposed offer of money. (One wonders about her naivety); he wants to possess her. As Scarpia makes his physical advances towards her, Tosca desperately strives to stave him off. It is here that Puccini introduces the splendid aria in which Tosca asks God why he makes her suffer so for she has always been his faithful servant. [https://youtu.be/SFCMk5zgItI] Relevant to our consideration here is Puccini’s deft use of the accompaniment to make his point. After beginning with an innocuous accompaniment, Puccini subtlety introduces a familiar melody [1:10 -1:38] beginning with the words “Sempre con fe sincere” (Always with sincere faith). It is the same theme that we heard upon Tosca’s first entrance in Act I [https://youtu.be/tRLAGdPxvCE 11:40 -12:20] “Mario, Mario…il vuol de sagrestano” (…it’s the sacristan’s will).The theme returns in the aria’s second half beginning with the words “Diedi gioielli della Madonna al manto” (Jewels I brought for the Madonna’s mantle) [https://youtu.be/SFCMk5zgItI] 2:24 – 2:55]. The repeat is relevant to the section in Act I starting with “No, Mario mio! Lascia pria le preghi, che l’infiori” (No Mario! First let me pray and offer these flowers [at the foot of the altar]).[https://youtu.be/tRLAGdPxvCE 13:00 – 13:47]. By simple logic of association, the composer establishes a psychological connection using the same musical theme in two (or more) places in the score. And while this observation seems so elementary, most listeners barely notice its existence. What significance is all this discussion and what is its purpose? In the first reference to Act I in the aria (Sempre con fe sincere), the subject is faith, whether in its religious or personal meaning such as faithfulness – we recall Tosca’s suspicion of Cavaradossi’s infidelity; its recurrence in the second part of the aria (Diedi gioielli della Madonna al manto) focuses on her insistence to place flowers at the foot of the altar before acquiescing to Cavaradossi’s romantic attitude. That is duty first. For us to understand Puccini’s use of the connecting theme, we must entertain the possibility that it represents a psychological insight into Tosca’s behavior at a point where she is struggling to retain her honor and perhaps to ward off a threat to her physical safety. She is at her wit’s end; entertaining an interpretation that Tosca is experiencing pangs of conscience for having doubted Cavaradossi’s fidelity (part1) and her inordinate insensitivity to his manifestation of love (part 2) is a viable possibility. Credence is given to this interpretation by the observation that the subject of the aria is, allegedly, wrongful suffering and retribution for something. Employing this ingenious concept in musical terms increases our understanding of the plot and our appreciation of the composer’s personal involvement.

A Revealing Personal Touch

One of the most dramatic of all baritone arias is Credo in un Dio Crudel(I believe in a cruel God). It appears in Act II of Verdi’s Otello and is sung by the treacherous Iago immediately after he dispatches Cassio to ask Desdemona to intercede with Otello on Cassio’s behalf to restore Cassio’s former rank. The main theme of the aria is that God is cruel; he created Man in his image. And as Iago is a man, he is born cruel and conducts himself accordingly. Love, honesty, and charity are for fools. Life is nothing; after death there is nothing. [https://youtu.be/TNLbXE-kIlQ]. Iago then begins to implement his plan to ruin Otello as we well know from Shakespeare’s play Othello. A soliloquy parallel to the aria does not appear in Shakespeare’s work; it is entirely the figment of Verdi’s imagination. While it may raise many an eyebrow, the very fact that it exists as part of Verdi’s opera requires our respect and attention. Verdi intentionally created the aria and not conveniently, but rather purposely, placed it where he did in the action. It remains for us to understand why. Recalling the scene that immediately precedes the aria, we realize that, in enlisting Cassio as a witness to Otello’s action during the brawl in the closing moments of Act I, Iago has ensured for himself what he believes to be a justifiable cause for Otello’s replacement as commander, due to incompetence. It is a possible defense should he need it. Iago will, of course, use the aria as a springboard for further plans to destroy Otello. By introducing the aria Verdi adds a personal touch to his version of an age-old story of deception and deceit and he does so in musical terms.

Inventive Measures in Creativity

Sometimes we are involved in one task but our thoughts are elsewhere. This phenomenon is not uncommon and often we are preoccupied with our extraneous contemplations more fully than with the task at hand. If we were to write a novel we would use words to describe this duality. Music does not offer us the luxury of verbal latitude; this medium is too immediate and requires an auditory solution that will get a feeling or an idea across to the listener. How then does the composer accomplish this seemingly insurmountable task? He may, of course, change the meter (beats per measure) or he may retain the meter but alter the effect of the music within the meter itself. The following discussion related to Puccini’s opera Tosca is a case in point. Cavaradossi is a suspected subversive of the Roman government whose chief of police is the cruel and villainous Scarpia. The latter has sown seeds of doubt in the mind of the jealous Tosca regarding Cavaradossi’s fidelity towards her. Scarpia himself is enamored of Tosca and hopes to possess her. In the closing moments of Act I Scarpia joins a procession of church goers who sing a Te Deum (song of praise and glory to God). During the course of the procession, Scarpia plots Cavaradossi’s execution and his own possession of Tosca. The music for the Te Deum is written in a time signature of four beats to the measure. This is, after all, a procession – slow and ponderous. But Scarpia is pensive and on the verge of obsessive passion; he pays no attention to the ongoing religious ceremony. How does Puccini convey the mood of the scene to capture Scarpia’s state of mind? He introduces triplets (a rhythm playing three evenly spaced notes in the space of two notes of the same rhythmic value; the first note is emphasized. The triplet sounds: yam-ta-ta, yam-ta-ta yet has a value of one beat). This clever alteration is repeated several times during the scene. The cumulative auditory sensation is astounding. While maintaining the plodding tempo of a procession, Puccini’s use of the triplets adds the illusion of a waltz. Since a waltz is generally associated with a romantic atmosphere, Scarpia’s amorous yearnings are given expression within the context of a religious ceremony. https://youtu.be/rkMx0CLWeRQ [38:12 - 42:33]

Master Criminal’s Artful Manipulation

The opening scene in Act II of Verdi’s Otello finds Iago Otello’s ensign in conversation with Cassio who was relieved of his command in Act I ostensibly because of his involvement in the brawl engineered by none other than Iago himself. It is a casual, almost innocent, conversation about a falling out between Cassio and a woman called Bianca. The gist of the conversation suggests that Cassio has fallen out of favor with Bianca as a result of the former’s falling out of Otello’s grace. Iago advises Cassio to ask Desdemona Otello’s wife to intercede on his behalf, insinuating in a conspiratorial manner, that they both know that she is the true ruler in Cypress. What, if anything, gives credence to Iago’s statement and what evidence is there to its existence? In a novel or play the artist can spin out an explanation in countless words but in opera, this is not possible. How then does Verdi cope with that allegation? To what effect? As opera is drama set to music it follows that the action must be logical because the human mind requires it. And since the composer’s main tool of expression is music, he must translate it into understandable human motive or motivation. The scene itself provides us with ample clues. Let’s consider. Five characters appear in the opening scene; all but Bianca convene together in Act I – when Otello demotes Cassio beginning with “Abbaso le spade” [Lower your swords]. (https://youtu.be/Pj_XSeLT3qU [18:24 - 20:27]. The musical figure at 18:35-18:37 appears a total of five times within this time frame. During this span, Otello gathers evidence relating to the cause of the disturbance and has sufficient information to make a command decision. But only on the fourth time, upon Desdemona’s appearance, does Otello take action and relieve Cassio of his command; the final sounding seals Casssio’s fate. The cause for Cassio’s demotion is clear. It is because he disturbed Desdemona’s sleep – not because of behavior unbecoming of an officer on duty! Who then rules in Cypress if not Desdemona? This is Verdi’s keen observation and understanding of the human condition and his masterful use of music to define it. A further observation bears mentioning. In repeating the musical figure several times, Verdi calls into question Otello’s ability to make decisions appropriate to a military commander. By this clever and insightful use of music, Verdi opens a vast expanse to explain the human elements in the plot. Iago’s calculated enlistment of Cassio as a witness to Otello’s inept leadership is only the beginning; he will make expert and damaging use of this material in the course of the opera.

Retrospection

Take this as an axiom. The best interpretation is only as good as the weight of the evidence and logic that support it. This refers not only to the consultation room but to the opera scene as well. Sometimes the obvious can be discerned only by retrospection; looking back and recalling past events may reveal logical connections that would otherwise have been suggested at best and at worst would create a sense of unrest and unresolved doubt. Much has been said of and written about character analysis in opera. What is the platform upon which these character studies are based? Presumably, a thorough and in-depth reading of the libretto is an absolute requirement but without an appreciation of the music and its use as a descriptive tool, no valid interpretation of the character is possible. Further, the most effective way to achieve this end is to study the libretto together with the musical score from beginning to end and allow the overall impression to filter through in a process known in psychoanalysis as Free Floating Attention to which I refer in my book: “When the Fat Lady Sings…Listen!” The composer custom-tailors his music to accurately fit the dimensions of the characters in the opera. The opera composer’s attentiveness is finely tuned to discern personal traits by his innate sensitivity very similar to that found in painters and sculptors. An example from Act I in Verdi’s Otello may clarify this point. Otello, governor of Cypress has returned home in triumph after having defeated the Saracens. He and his wife Desdemona have retired to their chamber. The citizens are in a festive mood; they dance and sing joyously around a fire in the square. Everyone is happy – everyone except Iago whose hatred of Otello simmers and smolders in anticipated vengeance. In simulated innocence, Iago entices Cassio, the officer on duty to drink until the latter becomes drunk. In the events that follow Cassio wounds a fellow officer in a provoked duel that creates a tumult in the entire square below Otello’s chamber, causing Otello to come out to investigate. The outraged Otello orders: ‘Abasso le spade’ (Lower your swords). Verdi’s music is monotonic until “spade”. The interval between the syllables “le” and “spa” is a semitone (half tone); the interval between the syllables “spa” and “de” is an octave down. This fact in itself is meaningless but when contrasted with a full tone between “le” and “spa” as a possible alternative, the impact is astounding and significant. Why? It is because the auditory evidence reveals that the written interval sounds constricted; the proposed alternative is experienced as being authoritative. Is there any doubt that Verdi intentionally penned the semitone interval and that its purpose was to make a statement about Otello’s personality? Contrast this with Otello’s heroic “Esultate!” (Exalt!) upon his initial entrance. This incisive revelation could not have been made without a thorough, in-depth study of the score and libretto. It is through retrospection that we can realize the composer’s genius to tell his story.

Alternatives to an Existing Theme

If the composer's objective is to tell a story his task is to translate the music into intelligible language. How does he accomplish this seeming incongruous feat? A possible solution may be provided by offering an alternative to an existing theme. A good example presents itself in Act I of Verdi's "La Traviata". Violetta left alone after Alfredo's ardent avowal of his love for her, struggles with her mixed feelings whether to go off with him or to continue her present life of partying and entertaining. According to the music of "Sempre Libera" [Forever Liberated], Violetta chooses the latter possibility. But in Act II we find her living with Alfredo. Clearly, we've missed something; logic would dictate that we raise an eyebrow of wonderment. Opera-goers traditionally ignore what is a clearly illogical situation. Of greater importance to them is: How the soprano sang the scene; Were the coloratura passages negotiated accurately and effortlessly? How did the evening's Violetta compare to others of past glory etc? These considerations fall short of the composer's true resolve to tell a story. If we are true to our innate quest for logic we must search for a plausible solution. Verdi does not disappoint. He provided a reasonable cause for Violetta's decision. How? The evidence is found in the duet between Alfredo and Violetta beginning with "Un di felice" [One happy day]. https://youtu.be/4oJwdMG-eeA (15:05 - 15:45). Note the presence of an upbeat, a sixteenth note. The melody then flows elegantly with slight skips (dotted eighth notes to which are attached sixteenth notes). One gets the feeling of a smooth line - of an experienced dancer gliding along on the dance floor. This is how Verdi presents Alfredo to Violetta when they are alone. Verdi chooses this musical line. The message is clear. I am suave, experienced; I am dynamic. Violetta responds to Alfredo's elegant and aristocratic advances with mixed - even contradictory emotions. She tells Alfredo she knows nothing of love and can offer him only friendship. She is somewhat reserved and remote but her music tells a different story. There are leaps and bounds in her music, a leap of a minor sixth going to a minor seventh followed by several descending bounds and coming to rest. This sequence is repeated; the leaps and bounds are sung for a total of four times. (16:40 - 17:07). Hearing Violetta's music one can easily envision a Springbok in full flight from a chasing predator. Despite her efforts to maintain her poise, Violetta is in a panic; Alfredo's ardent pursuit makes her terribly uncomfortable. The evidence is the quandary of feelings Violetta expresses after Alfredo's departure. The reader may be tempted to question this reading of the scene. But take a step back and contemplate the following alternative. We have Verdi's choice on record but what if...? Suppose Verdi had written Alfredo's music to "Un di felice" in a straightforward meter of 3/8. All the notes would have had a value of eighth notes or higher; the dotted eighth notes followed by the sixteenth notes would be gone. The melody would have sounded drab, plodding and singularly uninteresting. Now compare it to the actual music with its verve and dynamics filling the air. The latter represents Violetta's suitor as a veritable thoroughbred racehorse the former would represent a run of the mill suitor the likes of which Violetta would have turned away by the dozens. Not only that but Violetta's response would no doubt have been casual and have indicated her boredom. If we explore the potential possibilities that were available to Verdi we begin to realize the vast riches of the composer's understanding of the human condition and indeed his genius to translate the music into an intelligible language. We now can understand Violetta's decision; we now have a logical story to tell about the intricacies of human interaction, and all because we dared consider an alternative to an existing theme.

Changing the Interval

Like any form of Art the key word or concept is communication. The opera composer's main purpose is to convey his thoughts and ideas about his chosen subject. In the case of the written word the author has unlimited latitude to get his ideas across. Other forms of Art must translate the communicative process into a form that takes into account the limits of the chosen medium. Impact and immediacy are paramout considerations in painting, sculpture, dance and music.In our case, opera, the project is compounded because it combines music and text. The task invites the composer to unite an unlimited quantity - words, with music - an amorphous approximation of meaning and intent to create an amalgum of ideas. Simple? No. Possible? Yes. How does the opera composer accomplish his intended goal and what are his tools? Simple answer, many possibilities. Let's explore one of them - the interval or the space between two notes. In Act III of Puccini's opera "La Boheme" we find the poet Rodolfo, telling his friend Marcello the painter that he wishes to separate from Mimi with whom he had fallen in love and is now living. His reason? Mimi flirts with every man she meets who but looks at her. In the selection that begins with: "Mimi e una civetta..." (Mimi's just a flirt...) Puccini wrote an interval of a semi-tone between the two syllables Mi and mi. (https://youtu.be/kHAS7r8Pd0k 1:09:54 - 1:10:03). Supposedly he's explained his rationale to Marcello; but the latter does not accept this excuse. Marcello accuses Rodolfo of not being truthful. Whereupon Rodolfo recants and reveals his true feelings. Puccini begins with a repeat of the "Mimi e una civeta" theme but now the interval is a perfect fourth that is, a leap of four notes instead of a semi-tone ( 1:10:28 - 1:11:35). The effect is thrilling. Rodolfo pours out his pent-up worries and feelings of helplessness in the face of Mimi's deteriorating health. By opening or widening the interval Puccini reveals the force of human feelings that beset this figure. It is a marvelous achievement of illustrating how by simple manipulation of a musical theme the composer is able to describe this heart-rending situation. If we the listening audience focus mainly on the beautiful melodic line or the sensitive interpretation of the singer, we miss a significant and even essential element of the composer's keen observation of the human condition and his genius for describing it in musical terms. Puccini is describing dynamic human behavior using music as his instrument of expression.

Relevant Issues in Opera

The opera composer, being human as all of us are, operates within the parameters of behavior as any other person. All the defense mechanisms that apply to our normal (and sometimes outside the realm of normalcy) form of behavior apply to those of the composer as well. The creative aspects of the composer cannot, by definition, transcend the boundaries imposed upon all of us by Nature. The sole purpose of human existence is to communicate with others and to have others understand us; each person has his individual style and manner of expression that identifies him and distinguishes him from others. Everyone has a story to tell; every person wishes to be heard on some level of communication. That being said, the composer wishes to tell his version of a story. He does so by means of his chosen instrument of expression provided him by Nature namely, music. His creative presentation to us his audience is an opera, a musical version of a story. In the absence of narrative, there is no opera; the musical composition beautiful and artistic that it may have no relevance. We the opera audience sophisticated and novices alike have been conditioned to view the operatic genre purely from a musical point of view. We have focused our attention upon the great singers and on the beautiful musical numbers in the score. We have our favorite operas, singers, and selections. But the text has always been viewed in a negative light. The story is negligible at best; it doesn't make sense most of the time. The important element is the glorious music. Actually and logically the reverse is true. The purpose of the composer is to tell his story through the use of music. To quote Shakespeare: "The play's the thing". Music in the hands of the composer is the equivalent of a mallet and chisel in the hands of the sculptor and an easel and paintbrush in the hands of the artist; it is merely an instrument of expression. Our focus then is the manner by which the composer uses his musical talents to describe a scene, a tale or even a situation. He chooses his varied musical palette carefully and with intent - sometimes on an unconscious level but always willfully. It is part of his human DNA as it is ours. As such, we can and do identify with it; we can understand his language for it is ours as well. In the series of posts that will follow, I will discuss several aspects that I have referred to as issues that hopefully, will explain how the composer uses his considerable musical talents to further a very real life-situation. As I shall endeavor to show there are relevance and logic to the libretto; we have only to learn the composer's language and its implementation.